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½Ä¹°µ¶ : Glycoalkaloids (solanine)

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Glycoalkaloids (solanine and chaconine) in potatoes

The glycoalkaloids ¥á-solanine and ¥á-chaconine are natural pesticides that are produced in potatoes. ¥á-Solanine is also found in eggplant, apples, bell peppers, cherries, sugar beets and tomatoes [74,117]. The only difference between ¥á-solanine and ¥á-chaconine is the sugars in the trisaccharide potion of the molecule, i.e., glucose with two rhamnoses for ¥á-solanine and a glucose, galactose and a rhamnose for ¥á-chaconine [118].

Depending on variety and storage conditions, concentrations of ¥á-chaconine and ¥á-solanine in potato tubers vary between 0.5–635 ppm (0.0005–0.64 mg/g potato) and 5–125,100 molecule ppm (0.005–25.1 mg/g potato), respectively (Beckstrom-Sternberg, as cited in Tice 1998 [117], p. 9). Although glycoalkaloids are found throughout the potato tuber, the greatest concentrations are in the sprouts, peels and sun-greened areas [74]. The FDA considers the maximum acceptable glycoalkaloid content to be 20–25 mg/100 g fresh potato weight (or 200–250 ppm) (Crocco, as cited in FDA 2008 [119], p.1). Under current FDA regulations, 20 milligrams of solanine per 100 grams (a small potato) can render it unfit to eat.

Synthesis of ¥á-chaconine and ¥á-solanine is stimulated by light, mechanical injury, aging and potato beetle infestation [117,120]. Exposure of potatoes to light in the field or marketplace can lead to glycoalkaloid concentrations that are unsafe for human consumption. Concentrations of solanine in green or blighted potatoes have been shown to increase by seven fold [73].

The symptoms of acute toxicity to ¥á-solanine and ¥á-chaconine are due to their ability to act as inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase and disruptors of cell membranes. Glycoalkaloid doses of 1 to 5 mg/kg have been shown to be acutely toxic to humans, and doses of 3 to 6 mg/kg have resulted in death [117]. Symptoms of glycoalkaloid toxicity in humans include drowsiness, itchiness in the neck region, increased sensitivity (hyperesthesia), labored breathing and gastrointestinal symptoms (abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea) [74].

¥á-Solanine and ¥á-chaconine are not mutagenic or only weakly mutagenic in vitro, are not genotoxic in vivo, and are embryotoxic and teratogenic to experimental animals. Teratogenic effects in mammals include central nervous system abnormalities (e.g., exencephaly, cranial bleb, encephalocele, and anophthalmia), mild hydronephrosis, hydroureter, and irregular or fused ribs. Although one human case study reported a correlation between the severity of potato late-blight and the incidence of spina bifida, no other studies in humans have found a correlation between the consumption of potatoes and birth defects [117]. There is no evidence that ¥á-solanine and ¥á-chaconine are carcinogenic in animals or humans.

In 1993, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences determined that the average consumption of glycoalkaloids from potatoes was 12.75 mg glycoalkaloids/person/day (0.18 mg/kg bw based on a bw of 70 kg) [117], which is approximately one-fifth of the lowest dose that has been shown to produce acute toxicity in humans (1 mg/kg bw).


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