Hint | Food | ¸À°úÇâ | Diet | Health | ºÒ·®Áö½Ä | ÀÚ¿¬°úÇÐ | My Book | À¯Æ©ºê | Frims | ¿ø ·á | Á¦ Ç° | Update | Site |
±âÈ£¼º ¡í Çâ·á ¡í ½ÄÇ°Çâ·á, ÇâÀåÇ°Çâ Flavor chemistry and technology PART I Flavor Chemistry Chapter 1 An Overview of Flavor Perception 1.1 Flavor Perception 1.2 Taste Perception 1.2.1 Anatomy of Taste 1.2.2 Synopses of Tastes 1.3 Chemesthesis 1.3.1 Chemesthetic Responses 1.3.2 Tactile Response 1.4 Olfaction 1.4.1 Anatomy of Olfaction 1.4.2 Odor Receptor Functioning 1.4.3 Signal Encoding Chapter 2 Flavor and the Information Age 2.2 History of Flavor Literature 2.3 Journals 2.4 Professional Societies 2.5 Internet Chapter 3 Flavor Analysis 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Aroma Compounds 3.2.1 Introduction 3.2.2 Sample Selection/Preparation 3.2.3 Principles of Aroma Isolation 3.2.3.1 Introduction 3.2.3.2 Solubility 3.2.3.3 Sorptive Extraction 3.2.3.4 Volatility 3.2.4 Methods of Aroma Isolation 3.2.4.1 Static Headspace 3.2.4.2 Headspace Concentration Methods (Dynamic Headspace 3.2.4.3 Distillation Methods 3.2.4.4 Solvent Extraction 3.2.4.5 Sorptive Extraction 3.2.4.6 Concentration for Analysis 3.2.4.7 Aroma Isolation Summary 3.2.5 Analysis of Aroma Isolates 3.2.5.1 Prefractionation 3.2.5.2 Gas Chromatography 3.2.5.3 GC/Olfactometry (GC/O) or GC-MS/Olfactometry (GC-MS/O) 3.2.5.4 Mass Spectrometry 3.2.6 Specific Analysis 3.2.6.1 Key Components in Foods 3.2.6.2 Aroma Release During Eating 3.2.7 Electronic Noses 3.3 Taste Compounds (Nonvolatiles 3.3.1 Introduction 3.3.1.1 Taste Compounds 3.3.1.2 Other Nonvolatile Components of Foods 3.3.2 The Analysis of Taste Substances 3.3.2.1 Sweeteners 3.3.2.2 Salt 3.3.2.3 Acidulants 3.3.2.4 Umami 3.3.2.5 Bitter Substances Chapter 4 Flavor Formation in Fruits and Vegetables 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Biogenesis of Fruit Aroma 4.2.1 Aroma Compounds from Fatty Acid Metabolism 4.2.2 Aroma Compounds from Amino Acid Metabolism..........................77 4.2.3 Aroma Compounds Formed from Carbohydrate Metabolism ..........80 4.3 Biogenesis of Vegetable Aroma.....................................................................83 4.3.1 The Role of Lipids in Vegetable Aroma Formation..........................85 4.3.2 Aroma Compound Formation from Cysteine Sulfoxide Derivatives 4.3.3 Glucosinolates as Aroma Precursors in Vegetables...........................88 4.3.4 Additional Pathway for Vegetable Flavor Formation........................88 4.4 Glycosidically Bound Aroma Compounds....................................................88 4.4.1 Glycoside Structure............................................................................91 4.4.2 Freeing of Glycosidically Bound Flavor Compounds ......................91 4.5 Location of Flavor in Plant............................................................................92 4.6 Influence of Genetics, Nutrition, Environment, Maturity, and Storage on Development of Flavor 4.6.1 Plant Products ....................................................................................93 4.6.1.1 Genetics...............................................................................93 4.6.1.2 Environmental and Cultural Effects on Flavor Development on the Plant 4.6.1.3 Influence of Maturity and Postharvest Storage on Flavor Development off the Plant 4.7 Animal Products.............................................................................................97 4.8 Conclusions ....................................................................................................97 Chapter 5 Changes in Food Flavor Due to Processing ....................................103 5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................103 5.2 The Maillard Reaction .................................................................................103 5.2.1 General Overview of the Maillard Reaction ...................................103 5.2.2 Pathways for Flavor Formation via the Maillard Reaction.............104 5.2.3 Factors Influencing the Maillard Reaction ......................................105 5.2.3.1 Heating Time/Temperature ...............................................106 5.2.3.2 Influence of System Composition ....................................108 5.2.3.3 Influence of Water Activity ..............................................109 5.2.3.4 Influence of pH.................................................................109 5.2.3.5 Influence of Buffer/Salts...................................................110 5.2.3.6 Influence of Oxidation/Reduction State ...........................110 5.2.4 Kinetics of the Maillard Reaction and Flavor.................................111 5.2.4.1 Pyrazines ...........................................................................111 5.2.4.2 Oxygen-Containing Heterocyclic Compounds.................112 5.2.4.3 Sulfur-Containing Compounds.........................................113 5.2.4.4 Miscellaneous Compounds...............................................113 5.2.4.5 Summary...........................................................................114 5.2.5 Flavor Formation via the Maillard Reaction ...................................114 5.2.5.1 Carbonyl Compounds .......................................................115 5.2.5.2 Nitrogen-Containing Heterocyclic Compounds ...............115 5.2.5.3 Oxygen-Containing Heterocyclic Compounds.................117 5.2.5.4 Sulfur-Containing Heterocyclic Compounds ...................118 5.2.5.5 Oxygen-Containing Compounds ......................................119 5.3 Flavors from Lipids......................................................................................119 5.3.1 Deep Fat Fried Flavor ......................................................................119 5.3.2 Lactones ...........................................................................................121 5.3.3 Secondary Reactions ........................................................................121 5.4 Flavors Formed via Fermentation................................................................123 5.4.1 Esters ................................................................................................123 5.4.2 Acids.................................................................................................124 5.4.3 Carbonyls..........................................................................................125 5.4.4 Alcohols ...........................................................................................127 5.4.5 Terpenes............................................................................................128 5.4.6 Lactones ...........................................................................................129 5.4.7 Pyrazines ..........................................................................................129 5.4.8 Sulfur Compounds ...........................................................................130 5.4.9 Conclusions ......................................................................................130 Chapter 6 Flavor Release from Foods..............................................................139 6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................139 6.2 Lipid/Flavor Interactions..............................................................................140 6.2.1 Effect of Fat: Flavor Interactions on Aroma ...................................141 6.2.1.1 Equilibrium Conditions ....................................................141 6.2.1.2 Dynamic Conditions .........................................................143 6.2.2 Effect of Fat: Flavor Interactions on Taste......................................144 6.3 Carbohydrate: Flavor Interactions ...............................................................145 6.3.1 Simple Sugars: Aroma Interactions .................................................145 6.3.2 High Potency Sweeteners: Aroma Interactions ...............................146 6.3.3 Complex Carbohydrate (Polysaccharide): Aroma Interactions.......148 6.3.3.1 Chemical Interactions .......................................................149 6.3.3.2 Resistance to Mass Transfer.............................................151 6.3.4 Carbohydrate: Taste Interactions .....................................................152 6.4 Protein: Flavor Interactions..........................................................................153 6.4.1 Protein: Aroma Interactions .............................................................153 6.4.1.1 Chemical Interactions .......................................................153 6.4.1.2 Resistance to Mass Transfer.............................................155 6.4.2 Protein Hydrolysate: Aroma Interactions ........................................155 6.4.3 Protein: Taste Interactions................................................................155 6.5 Minor Food Components: Aroma Interactions............................................155 6.5.1 Melanoidin: Flavor Interaction ........................................................156 6.5.2 Hydrogen Ion Effects (pH effects) ..................................................156 Chapter 7 Off-Flavors and Taints in Foods 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Sensory Aspects of Off-Flavor Testing 7.3 Taints in Foods 7.3.1 Airborne Sources 7.3.2 Waterborne Sources 7.3.3 Disinfectants, Pesticides, and Detergents 7.3.4 Packaging Sources 7.4 Off-Flavors Due to Genetics or Diet 7.4.1 Genetics 7.4.2 Diet 7.5 Off-Flavors Due to Chemical Changes in the Food 7.5.1 Lipid Oxidation 7.5.2 Nonenzymatic Browning 7.5.3 Photo-Induced Off-Flavors 7.5.4 Enzymatic Flavor Changes 7.6 Microbial Off-Flavors PART II Flavor Technology Chapter 8 Flavoring Materials 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Definitions 8.1.1.1 Flavoring 8.1.1.2 Natural Flavoring 8.1.1.3 Artificial Flavoring 8.2 Natural Flavoring Materials (Plant Sources) 8.2.1 Herbs and Spices 8.2.1.1 Definitions and Markets 8.2.1.2 Historical Associations 8.2.1.3 Classification of Herbs and Spices 8.2.1.4 Flavor Character of Herbs 8.2.1.5 Preparation of Herbs for Market 8.2.1.6 Introduction to Spices 8.2.2 Derivatives of Spices 8.2.2.1 Essential Oils (Distillation) 8.2.2.2 Oleoresins (Solvent Extraction) 8.2.2.3 Expressed ¡°Essential¡± Oils (Citrus Oils) 8.2.2.4 Mint Oils 8.2.2.5 Fruit, Fruit Juices, and Concentrates 8.2.2.6 Vanilla 8.2.2.7 Cocoa, Coffee, and Tea Flavorings 8.2.2.8 Aromatic Vegetables Chapter 9 Flavoring Materials Made by Processing ........................................261 9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................261 9.2 Natural Products Made by Roasting: Cocoa/Chocolate..............................261 9.2.1 Production of Cocoa Powder...........................................................262 9.2.2 The Dutch Process ...........................................................................262 9.2.3 Chocolate..........................................................................................262 9.3 Process Flavors: Meat-Like Flavors ............................................................263 9.3.1 The Evolution of Process Meat-Like Flavorings ............................264 9.3.2 The Creation of Process Flavorings ................................................265 9.3.2.1 Reaction System Composition .........................................265 9.3.2.2 Reaction Conditions..........................................................271 9.3.2.3 Final Flavor.......................................................................272 9.3.3 Hydrolyzed Vegetable Proteins (HVP) ............................................273 9.3.4 Autolyzed Yeast Extracts (AYE)......................................................273 9.4 Enzymatically Derived Flavorings...............................................................274 9.4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................274 9.4.2 Properties of Enzyme Catalyzed Reactions ....................................275 9.4.3 Enzyme Modified Butter/Butter Oil ................................................278 9.4.4 Enzyme-Modified Cheese (EMC) ...................................................279 9.4.4.1 Enzymes Used ..................................................................280 9.4.4.2 General Processes Employed ...........................................281 9.4.5 Further Processed EM Dairy Products ............................................282 9.5 Flavors Made by Fermentation....................................................................283 9.5.1 Yeasts................................................................................................283 9.5.2 Vinegar/Acetic Acid .........................................................................283 9.5.3 Dried Inactive Yeast Powder............................................................285 9.6 Flavors Made by Pyrolysis: Smoke Flavors................................................285 9.6.1 The Smoking of Foods ....................................................................285 9.6.2 Natural Liquid Smoke Flavorings ...................................................286 9.6.3 Pyroligneous Acid ............................................................................286 9.6.4 Smoke Condensates .........................................................................286 9.7 Biotechnology to Produce Flavoring Materials...........................................287 9.7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................287 9.7.2 Production of Natural Flavoring Materials by Enzymatic Action ...287 9.7.2.1 Ester Formation ................................................................288 9.7.2.2 Resolution of Racemic Mixtures......................................290 9.7.3 Production of Natural Flavoring Materials by MicrobialAction 290 9.7.3.1 Fermentation to Produce Flavoring Materials...............291 9.7.3.2 Bioconversions Via Microorganisms .............................293 9.7.3.3 Resolution of Racemic Mixtures...................................293 9.7.4 Economics of Biotechnology .........................................................294 Chapter 10 Artificial Flavoring Materials ..........................................................299 10.1 Artificial Flavorings .....................................................................................299 10.2 Synthetic Flavoring Materials......................................................................299 10.2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................299 10.2.2 Consumer Attitudes Toward Synthetic Chemicals ..........................300 10.3 Classification of Aroma Compounds by Molecular Structure ....................300 10.4 Sensory Threshold Values............................................................................303 10.5 Sensory Characters of Odor Compounds ....................................................305 10.5.1 Hydrocarbons..................................................................................306 10.5.2 Carboxylic Acids ............................................................................307 10.5.3 Acetals ............................................................................................307 10.5.4 Alcohols..........................................................................................308 10.5.5 Carbonyls........................................................................................308 10.5.5.1 Aldehydes.......................................................................309 10.5.5.2 Ketones...........................................................................309 10.5.6 Esters ..............................................................................................309 10.5.7 Ethers ..............................................................................................310 10.5.8 Heterocyclic Compounds ...............................................................310 10.5.9 Lactones..........................................................................................311 10.5.10 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds ..................................................311 10.5.10.1 Amines ...........................................................................311 10.5.10.2 Amides ...........................................................................311 10.5.10.3 Imines.............................................................................312 10.5.10.4 Amino Acids ..................................................................312 10.5.10.5 Isothiocyanates...............................................................312 10.5.11 Phenols............................................................................................312 10.5.12 Sulfur-Containing Compounds.......................................................312 10.6 Nomenclature of Organic Chemicals ..........................................................313 Chapter 11 Flavor Potentiators ...........................................................................317 11.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................317 11.2 Chemical Properties of L-Amino acids and 5-Nucleotides .......................318 11.2.1 Structures ........................................................................................318 11.2.2 Stability...........................................................................................319 11.3 Sensory Properties of MSG and 5-Nucleotides .........................................320 11.3.1 Influence of MSG and 5-Nucleotides on Taste ..............................320 11.3.2 Influence of MSG and 5-Nucleotides on Aroma ...........................321 11.3.3 Synergism Between MSG and the 5-Nucleotides..........................322 11.4 Traditional Flavor Potentiators in Foods .....................................................322 11.4.1 MSG and 5-Nucleotides in Foods ..................................................322 11.4.1.1 Yeast Extracts ...................................................................323 11.4.1.2 Hydrolyzed Vegetable Proteins (HVP).............................324 11.4.2 MSG and 5-Nucleotides Added to Foods.......................................325 11.4.3 Sources of MSG and 5-Nucleotides ...............................................326 11.4.4 Table Salt as a Flavor Potentiator....................................................329 11.5 Toxicity of MSG and 5-Nucleotides ..........................................................329 11.5.1 Monosodium Glutamate...................................................................329 11.5.2 5-Nucleotides ..................................................................................330 11.6 Other Potentiators ........................................................................................330 11.6.1 Beefy Meaty Peptide........................................................................330 11.6.2 Umami Tasting Glutamate Conjugates ............................................331 11.6.3 Alapyridaine .....................................................................................331 11.6.4 Sweetness Potentiators.....................................................................332 11.6.4.1 Maltol and Ethyl Maltol ...................................................332 11.6.4.2 Cyclic Enolones ................................................................332 11.6.5 Other Potentiators ............................................................................332 Chapter 12 Flavorists and Flavor Creation.........................................................337 12.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................337 12.2 The Flavorist ................................................................................................337 12.2.1 Selection of Individuals to Become Flavorists................................337 12.2.2 Training of Flavorists.......................................................................338 12.3 Working Environment ..................................................................................338 12.4 Flavor Creation.............................................................................................340 12.4.1 Imitation Flavorings .........................................................................340 12.4.2 Blending of Seasonings (Culinary Products) ..................................345 12.5 Sensory Assessment .....................................................................................346 12.5.1 Sample Evaluation ...........................................................................347 12.6 Conclusions ..................................................................................................348 Chapter 13 Flavor Production.............................................................................351 13.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................351 13.2 Liquid Flavorings .........................................................................................351 13.3 Emulsions .....................................................................................................352 13.3.1 Beverage Emulsions.........................................................................353 13.3.2 Baker¡¯s Emulsions............................................................................360 13.4 Dry Flavorings .............................................................................................360 13.4.1 Extended or Plated Flavors..............................................................360 13.4.2 Inclusion Complexes (Cyclodextrins and Starches)........................362 13.4.2.1 Cyclodextrins ....................................................................362 13.4.2.2 Starch ................................................................................364 13.4.3 Phase Separation/Coacervation Processes .......................................364 13.4.4 Dehydration Processes .....................................................................366 13.4.4.1 Spray Drying.....................................................................367 13.4.4.2 Freeze, Drum, and Tray Drying .......................................375 13.4.5 Extrusion ..........................................................................................377 13.4.5.1 Traditional Processes and Formulations...........................377 13.4.5.2 Modern Extrusion Processes ............................................380 13.4.5.3 Shear Form Process ..........................................................382 13.5 Controlled Release .......................................................................................383 13.6 Summary ......................................................................................................383 Chapter 14 Flavor Applications ..........................................................................391 14.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................391 14.2 The People....................................................................................................391 14.3 The Laboratory.............................................................................................392 14.4 Specific Flavoring Applications...................................................................392 14.4.1 Culinary and Meat Products ............................................................393 14.4.1.1 Soups and Stocks..............................................................394 14.4.1.2 Sauces, Seasonings, and Marinades .................................395 14.4.1.3 Meat Products ...................................................................396 14.4.2 Baked Goods and Bakery Products .................................................397 14.4.2.1 Problems in Flavoring Baked Goods ...............................398 14.4.2.2 Flavoring Baked Goods ....................................................398 14.4.2.3 Heat Resistant Flavorings.................................................399 14.4.3 Snack Foods .....................................................................................400 14.4.3.1 Problems in Flavoring Snack Foods ................................401 14.4.3.2 Snack Flavorings...............................................................401 14.4.3.3 Flavoring Materials...........................................................402 14.4.3.4 Means of Applying Flavorings .........................................405 14.4.4 Sugar-Based Confectionery Products and Chewing Gum ..............406 14.4.4.1 Hard Candies ....................................................................406 14.4.4.2 Caramels (Toffees)............................................................407 14.4.4.3 Pressed Tablets..................................................................408 14.4.4.4 Starch-Deposited Chews...................................................408 14.4.4.5 Chewing Gum...................................................................409 14.4.5 Dairy Products 14.4.5.1 Flavored Milks 14.4.5.2 Flavored Yogurts 14.4.5.3 Flavored Dairy Desserts 14.4.6 Soft Drinks 14.4.6.1 Introduction 14.4.6.2 Carbonated Beverages Chapter 15 Flavor Legislation and Religious Dietary Rules 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Legislation Limiting the Use of Flavor Compounds 15.2.1 U.S. Flavor-Related Legislation 15.3 Religious Dietary Rules 15.3.1 Kosher Dietary Laws 15.3.2 Halal Rules 15.4 Labeling of Food Flavorings 15.4.1 Bulk Labeling Requirements 15.4.2 Labeling for the Consumer Chapter 16 Quality Control 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Analytical Tests 16.2.1 Overview of Physicochemical Tests 16.2.1.1 Natural Plant Materials 16.2.1.2 Essential Oils 16.2.1.3 Oleoresins 16.2.1.4 Plated or Dispersed Spices 16.2.1.5 Synthetic Chemicals 16.2.1.6 Finished Flavorings 16.2.1.7 Vanilla Extract 16.2.1.8 Fruit-Based Products 16.2.2 Generally Used Analytical Testing Methods 16.2.2.1 Density/Specific Gravity 16.2.2.2 Refractive Index 16.2.2.3 Optical Rotation 16.2.2.4 Alcohol Content 16.2.2.5 Residual Solvent 16.2.2.6 Particle Size of Emulsions 16.2.2.7 Volatile Oil 16.2.2.8 Surface Oil 16.2.2.9 Moisture Content 16.2.2.10 Gas Chromatography 16.2.2.11 Spectroscopic Analysis 16.2.2.12 Microbiological Analysis 16.2.2.13 Electronic Noses 16.3 Sensory Analysis 16.3.1 Incoming Raw Ingredients 16.3.2 Finished Flavors 16.3.2.1 Sensory Evaluation 16.3.2.2 Changes in Finished Flavors with Age 16.3.2.3 Sample Rejection 16.3.3 Colorings 16.3.4 Scoville Heat Units 16.3.5 Summary 16.4 Adulteration Testing 16.4.1 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry 16.4.2 Chiral Compounds 16.4.3 HPLC 16.4.4 Carbon 14 Dating 16.4.5 Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis 16.4.6 Comments on Adulteration |
||||
|
|
|||